X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)

Working principle & Instrumentation 

XPS instrumentation 

XPS (photoelectron spectroscopy) is a surface-sensitive technique used to analyze the elemental composition, chemical state, and electronic state of elements on the surface of a material.

In Xps photoelectrons emitted from material as function of their binding energy in the sample, allowing for the identification of elements and their chemical states. It is highly sensitive to the top few nanometers of a material, making it valuable for surface analysis. XPS provide more athentic data than EDX.

XPS instrument typically consists of an X-ray source,usually Mg kα hv=1253.6ev line width = 0.7ev Al kα hv=1486.6ev line width=0.85ev, an hemisphere electronenergy analyzer outer negative and inner positve lining to intact electron in center, and a detector. X-rays are used to excite electrons from the sample, and the emitted photoelectrons are analyzed based on their kinetic energy (KE). XPS involves irradiating a material's surface with X-rays, which causes the emission of photoelectrons from the inner electron shells of atoms. The kinetic energy and number of emitted electrons are measured through detecter or analyser to determine the binding energy (BE) and abundance of each element providing information about the material's elemental composition electronic structure density and chemical states. Xps measures mostly top 10nm and provide surface information. Total energy of the system is hv=KV+BE+Φ si is work function, Xps can be used in line profiling of the elemental composition across the surface or 

in depth profiling when pair with ion beam itching. 

Sample Preparation Samples should be clean free of contamination. Conductive samples are preferred to avoid charging effects. Additionally, samples may need to be rotated during analysis to ensure a representative surface is probed.

Results Interpretation XPS spectra show peaks corresponding to different elements, the position of these peaks provides information about the chemical state of the elements. The intensity of the peaks is proportional to the elemental concentration. Different peaks are making in single graph shows oxidation state known as deconvolution, when one peak get difused new one is start making this 

type of peaks called satellite peaks indicate the change in the oxidation state.

XPS spectrum 

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X-ray Diffraction (XRD)

Working principle & Instrumentation 

XRD instrumentation 

XRD (X-ray Diffraction) is versatile nondistructive technique used to analyze the crystallographic structure of materials by measuring the diffraction pattern of X-rays as they interact with a crystalline 

sample.

XRD provides information about crystal structure, lattice parameters, phase composition, and preferred orientation of crystallites in a sample. Many materials are made up of tiny crystallites the chemical composition and structural type of these crystals is called their phase materials can be single phase or multiphase mixture and may conatin crystalline and non cryastalline components. In an X-ray diffracto meter different crystalline phases gives different diffraction patterns. Phase identification can be perform by comparing X-ray diffraction patteren obtained from unknown samples to patterens inreference data base. In XRD atoms of the sample donot absorb X-ray at all they just reflect them .if we did not get any peak in the material its mean the material 

is amrophous other vice it will be crystalline.

The XRD instrument consists of an X-ray tube, a sample holder, a crystal monochromator or a diffracting crystal, and a detector. The instrument used to maintain the angle and rotate the sample is termed a goniometer. The X-ray beam interacts (constractive interference) with the sample and the diffracted X-rays are detected to generate a diffraction pattern. The wavelegth of X-ray used is of the same order of magnitude of the distance between the atom in crystalline lattice. This gives rise to a diffraction pattern that can be analysied by number of ways usually sherrer equation D=Kλ/βcosϴ is used for crystalline size determination D=crystallite size K=0.9 (scherrer constant) λ= 0.15406nm (wave length of X-ray source) β=FWHM(in radians) ϴ= peak position (in radians) Bragges law nλ=2dsineϴ d= nλ/2sineϴ d= interplaner spacing or d spacing (in Ǻ) is used for mesurement of interplaner spacing or d spacing.

Sample Preparation Samples should be finely powdered and homogenously dispersed to ensure representative results. Amorphous materials may not produce diffraction patterns, as XRD is most effective for crystalline samples.

Results Interpretation XRD results are typically presented as a diffraction pattern, where peaks correspond to specific crystallographic planes. The position and intensity of these peaks provide information about the crystal structure and phase composition of the materialPeak width is inversly proportion to crystal size.

XRD graph 

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Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

Working principle & Instrumentation 

 FTIR instrumentation 

FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy) is analytical technique for determining functional group and crystal orientations. Their nature may be of organic or inorganic. FTIR contain IR source to produce IR radiation Interferometer (Michelson interferometer) which contain beam splitter, stationary mirror and moving mirror. Which split the beam into two beams two possiblities are,one is destructive interference called OPD (optical path difference) height and valley (crest and trough) of IR not match in beam spliter when it rejoin and cancel the effect of each other.

ZPD (zero path difference ) height and valley (crest and trough) of IR beams match is known as constructive interferences which gives results when fall on sample.

Basic principle is that electrons between different elements absorbed IR radiations at different frequencies matching to it in the range in FTIR this interaction (measures absorbance or emittence) These signals are decoded by applying techniques Fourier transformation to produced spectra usually in the mid-IR region corresponds to wavenumbers 4000 to 400cm-1 .

Sample prepration Samples for FTIR analysis must be prepared in a form suitable for transmission or reflection of infrared light. This often involves creating thin films, in disc or KBr wafer method by using potassium bromide (KBr) 3:1 ratio (3% KBR : 1% sample) mix well with each other grinding, mashing then place it in pressing disc press through hydraulic press applying pressure of 8 to 10 mega pascal to attain very thin crackless pellet place it in analyzer chamber to analyze. In direct method Liquids can analyize directly droping few drops on analyzer The goal is to present a uniform and representative sample.

Results interpretation FTIR spectra display peaks at specific wavenumbers corresponding to molecular vibrations. Peaks indicate the presence of certain functional groups or bonds. The intensity and position of these peaks provide information about the concentration and type of chemical bonds in the sample. 

Upto 4000cm-1 to 1500cm-1 is Known as functional group region 1500cm-1 to 400cm-1 known as finger print region specific for each material, match the spectra with IR data base to identify the functional group and materials.

FTIR spectra

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Surface Area Analyzer (SSA)

Working principle & Instrumentation 

SAA instrumentation 

The SSA (Surface Area Analyzer) is used to measure the specific surface area of a material, providing information about its porosity and the extent of available surface for chemical interactions. 

SAA quantifies the surface area by adsorbing gas molecules onto the material's surface and measuring the amount adsorbed. The data is then used to calculate the specific surface area. SAA typically consists of a degas system to remove adsorbed gases from the material, a sample cell where adsorption occurs, and a detection system to measure the adsorbed gas quantity. Instruments may use various inert and some other adsorptive gases like nitrogen. Principle is the gas adsorption onto the sample's surface. The amount of gas adsorbed is directly related to the surface area. The BET (Brunauer, Emmett, Teller) theory is commonly employed, which assumes the formation of a monolayer (as Langmuir theory) or multilayer of gas molecules on the surface. By analyzing the gas adsorption isotherm, the surface area of the material can determined accurately.

It is essential for characterizing materials with porous structures, like catalysts, adsorbents, and powders. It provides valuable information for researchers and industries involved in areas such as catalysis,  material science, environmental science etc. Pore volume and pore area distributions in the mesopore and macropore ranges by the BJH (Barrett, Joyner, Halenda) method of gas adsorption and desorption using a variety of thickness equations including a user-defined, standard isotherm (graph of gas adsorpition vs relative pressure).

Sample Preparation Samples need to be prepared by degassing to remove any previously adsorbed gases or contaminants. This is crucial for accurate measurements. Samples are often finely powdered or have a high surface area, such as porous materials like zeolites or activated carbon.

Results interpretation The specific surface area is determined by analyzing the quantity of gas adsorbed at various pressures. A plot of adsorption isotherm (adsorbed gas versus pressure) is created. Specific surface area is calculated using models such as the BET (Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller) equation systematically and provide BET isotherm gas adsorption graph. The BET theory is commonly employed, which assumes the formation of a monolayer (as langmuir theory) and can be multilayer of gas molecules on the surface.

SAA graph

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Pore Size Distribution (PSD)

Working principle & Instrumentation 

PSD instrumentation 

 

Pore size distribution analysis is used to determine the range of pore sizes within a material. This information is crucial for understanding the material's properties, especially in fields like material science, catalysis, and filtration.

PSD provides data on the distribution of pore sizes, indicating the variety of pore dimensions within a material. This information is vital for assessing how easily fluids can move through the material and its suitability for specific applications.

Various techniques are used for PSD analysis, including gas adsorption methods (often with instruments like BET analyzers (works on the BET theory principle ),

The BET (Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller) theory is commonly employed, which assumes the formation of a monolayer (as Langmuir theory) or multilayer of gas molecules on the surface. 

Mercury intrusion porosimetry (pore structure diameter volume etc), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) methods. Each technique offers different insights into pore size distribution.

The principle varies based on the technique employed. In gas adsorption methods like BET, the principle involves the adsorption of gas molecules onto the surface of the material. In mercury intrusion porosimetry, mercury is forced 

into the pores, and the intrusion pressure is related to pore size. NMR methods rely on the interactions between nuclear spins and the material's structure to infer pore size distribution. Each method exploits different physical principles to 

provide information about the material's porosity.

Sample Preparation Sample preparation depends on the technique used. For gas adsorption methods, the material is typically degassed to remove adsorbed gases. In mercury intrusion porosimetry, the sample is impregnated with mercury. NMR methods require specific sample handling for accurate results.

Results interpretation PSD results are often presented as a plot showing the 

percentage of pores within specified size ranges. The shape of the distribution curve provides insights into the homogeneity of the pore size within the material.

PSD graph 

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Point of Zero Charge (PZC)

Working principle & Instrumentation  

PZC instrumentation 

The Point of Zero Charge (PZC or pH

PZC) is a characteristic of a material's surface at which the material carries no net electrical charge. It is a critical parameter in understanding the surface charge behavior of materials, particularly in the context of colloidal systems and adsorption phenomena. It is that value of PH where surface attain neutrality.

The PZC is related to the protonation or deprotonation of functional groups on the material's surface. At the PZC, the concentrations of positively and negatively charged sites are equal, surface attain neutrality, Experimental methods involve determining the pH at which the material exhibits no net charge. This is often done by measuring the zeta potential or by titrating the material. with an acid or a base and monitoring the surface charge In salt addition method first Prepared 600ml 0.1M stalk solution of Sodium nitrate, take 40ml of this solution in fourteen different Erlenmeyer or conanical flasks one by one set the different pH value (1 to 14) of the solution with either adding acid or base drop vice through droper carefully Nitric acid (0.1 M) or Sodium hydroxide (0.1 M) by using a pH meter addjust different pH value from (1 to 14) has been set these are the initial pH (pHi) values then in each flask add desirable composite or material whose pzc want to be determin placed all these flask in orbital shaker and shake at speed of 150 rpm on the orbital shaker at room temperature for 24 hours or set the parameters of your own choice according to sample requirement. After equlibrium filter the contents, and record the pH of beaker containg the filtrate known as final pH (pHf) then find the change in pH by ΔpH=pHi _ pHf then draw the graph against ΔpH and pHi the line intersect or coside on the zero is its PZC.

Sample Preparation Sample preparation depends on the technique used in salt addition method Care fully salt solution prepared 0.1 M adjust their pH (1 to 14 by adding acidc or basic solution drope vice in it) Disperse the cleaned material in each of the prepared solutions. This could involve mixing the material with the solution and allowing it to equilibrate.

Results interpretation The pH below the PZC, the surface is positively charged, and above the PZC, it becomes negatively charged. PZC is crucial for predicting the adsorption behavior of ions and molecules onto a material's surfaces.

Figure PZC graph 

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Thermogravimetry Analysis (TGA)

Working principle & Instrumentation 

TGA instrumentation 

Thermal analysis are Techniques in which a physical property of a substance is measured as a function of temperature whilst the substance is subjected to a controlled temperature programme certain techniques lie in this here we discuse TGA and DTA in detail.

Thermogravimetry (TGA) is a technique in which the mass of a substance is measured as a function of temperature while the substance is subjected to a controlled temperature programme. The record is the thermogravimetric or TG curve or graph the mass should be plotted on the ordinate decreasing downwards and temperature (T) or time (t) on the abscissa increasing from left to right.

A thermobalance is used for weighing a sample continuously while it is being heated (in a given enivornement, air, N2, CO2, He, Ar, etc ) or cooled. The heating rate is the rate of temperature increase, which is customarily quoted in degrees per minute (on the Celsius or Kelvin scales). The heating or cooling rate is said to be constant when the temperature/time curve is linear. 

The initial temperature, Ti, is thattemperature (on the Celsius or Kelvin scale) at which the cumulative-mass change reaches a magnitude that the thermobalance can detect. The final temperature, Tf, is that temperature (on the Celsius or Kelvin scale) at which the cumulative mass change reaches a maximum. The reaction interval is the temperature difference between Tf and Ti as defined above. TG measures changes in sample mass, indicating processes such as decomposition, oxidation, or phase transitions. DTA can perform with it for physical property of substance is measured as a function of temperature at controlled temperature programme.

Sample Preparation Samples are usually finely ground and placed in a sample holder. It's crucial to have a representative sample and to account for factors like sample size and packing density, as they influence the thermal behavior.

Results interpretation In TG, weight loss or gain is observed as a function of temperature, providing information about processes like decomposition or oxidation. Plateau A plateau is that part of the TG curve where the mass is essentially constant. And decline line in grapgh shows decrease in mass as function of temperature.

TGA graph 

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Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)

Working principle & Instrumentation 

DTA instrumentation 

 

Thermal analysis are Techniques in which a physical property of a substance is measured as a function of temperature whilst the substance is subjected to a controlled temperature programme certain techniques lie in this here we discuse DTA in deatail.

DTA mesures the temperature difference between the sample and refrence materila as they both undergo the same temperature programme. The record is the differential thermal or DTA curve or thermogram; the temperature difference (∆T) should be plotted on the ordinate with endothermic reactions downwards and temperature or time on the abscissa increasing from left to right. The term quantitative differential thermal analysis (quantitative DTA) covers those uses of DTA where the equipment is designed to produce quantitative results in terms of energy and/or any other physical parameter.

Sample Preparation Samples are usually finely ground and placed in a sample holder. It's crucial to have a representative sample and to account for factors like sample size and packing density, as they influence the thermal behavior.

Results interpretation The base line corresponds to the portion or portions of the DTA curve, thermogram or thermograph for which ∆T is approximately zero. 

A peak is that portion of the DTA curve which departs from and subsequently returns to the base line. 

Endothermic peaks or endotherm, is a peak where the temperature of the sample falls below that of the reference material, i.e., ∆T is negative. 

Exothermic peaks or exotherm, is a peak where the temperature of the sample rises above that of the reference material, i.e., ∆T is positive. 

Peak width is the time or temperature interval between the points of departure from and return to the base line. There are several ways of interpolating the base

line as peak height peak width , peak area etc.

DTA thermogram 

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India

 

Flag of India 

State emblem of India 

(coat of arms adopted 26 January 1950) 

Introduction of India 

India (Urdu: انڈیا) officially the Republic of India (ISO: Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area; the most populous country as of June 2023; and from the time of its independence in 15 Agust 1947, the world's most populous democracy.

The founder of India was Ghandi .

India has world's strong standing armed forces. It is a declared nuclear-weapons state, in 13 may 1998. A nuclear scientist Dr 

Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam known as the Father of Indian atomic bomb.

India is ranked among the emerging and growth-leading economies, nation.

Legislative body of India

Legislature of the Union, which is called Parliament, consists of the President and two Houses, known as Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and House of the People (Lok Sabha). Each House has to meet within six months of its previous sitting. A joint sitting of two Houses can be held in certain cases.

Members are elected for 5 years through electoral process.

Parliament of India or Bharatiya Sansad

State heads

The prime minister of India (Urdu: وزِیراعظم انڈیا) is the head of government of the Republic of India. Executive authority is vested in the prime minister and his chosen cabinet, despite the president of India serving as the nominal head of executive.

Supreme court of India

The Supreme Court of India (Hindi: भारत का उच्चतम न्यायालय, IAST: Bhārat kā Uccatam Nyāyālay) is the supreme judicial authority and the highest court of the Republic of India. It is the final court of appeal for all civil and criminal cases in India. It also has the power of judicial review. The Supreme Court, which consists of the Chief Justice of India and a maximum of fellow 33 judges, has extensive powers in the form of original, appellate and advisory jurisdictions.

Supreme Court of India 

Emblem of the Supreme Court of India

Capital of India

New Delhi is the capital of India.

Largest city 

Delhi is the most populous and metro politian city in India with a population of over 30 million, followed by Mumbai with a population of over 20 million,

While Mumbai is largest city of India and finical centre.

Currancy of India

Currancy of India is Indian Rupee (₹) (INR).

Country codes

Caling code +91

Internet TLD (Top Level Domain) .in

Iso code 3166 IN

ISO 3166 is a standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) that defines codes for the names of countries, dependent territories, special areas of geographical interest, and their principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states).

National Language of India

National Language of India is Hindi ( ہندی ) but most of official work done in English instead of Hindi.

Other ethnic languages are spoken in state level included in Eihgth schedule of Constitution of india,s list the official languages are approximately 22 at state level  like Assamese,  Bengali, Boro, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Kokboro, kLepcha, Mizo, Sikkimese, all the 8th scheduled languages recognise regional languages, (except Sindhi, Kashmiri and Dogri).

Out of these 447 native languages are spoken all over the India.

Time zone

UTC+05:30 (IST)

Coordinated Universal Time or UTC is the primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time.

IST stand for Indian Standard Time.

DST (Day Saving Time) is not observed.

Day Saving Time is the time in which any country, changes its time officially in any season and revert back in same season again process is repeated through out.

Date format 

dd.mm.y.y.y.y

Driving side

Left drive 

Travel facilities

Transporter vechiels are available in whole India, trains and domestic air lines are available for some major cities. And boats are available for some water lock areas.

GDP year 2023

Gross Domestic products of the year 2023 is 3.737 US trillion dollars, (5th) in the world.

GDP Per capita $2,601, (139th) in the world.

GDP per capita is often considered an indicator of a country's standard of living; however, this is inaccurate because GDP per capita is not a measure of personal income.

Relegion

79.8 % Hinduism

14.2 % islam

2.3 % christainty 

1.7 % Sikhism 

0.7 % Buddhism 

0.4 % Jainism 

0.23 % Unaffiliated 

0.65 % others

Population of India 

It is the world's 1st-most populous country, with a population of almost 1.42 billion people, according to census 2023 and most populous country in the world with one-sixth of the world,s population.

Map of India 

Map of India 

Total Area

3,287,263 km square (1,269,219 square miles) 7th largest country in the world and the total land area as 3,060,500 km2 (1,181,700 sq miles)

Water percentage is 9.6 % .

Area and boundaries of India 

India is the 7th-largest country in the world by area and the 3rd-largest in Asia, spanning 3,287,263 square kilometers (1,269,219 square miles).  

India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west; China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; its Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand, Myanmar, and Indonesia.

New Delhi is the nation's capital, while Mumbai is its largest city and financial center.

Cultural civilization and Heritage

India is the site of several ancient cultures, including the 8,500-year-old it is supposed that Modern humans arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa no later than 55,000 years ago. Their long occupation, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has made the region highly diverse, second only to Africa in human genetic diversity. Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus river basin 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the Indus Valley Civilisation of the third millennium BCE. By 1200 BCE, an archaic form of Sanskrit, an Indo-European language, had diffused into India from the northwest. Its evidence today is found in the hymns of the Rigveda. Preserved by an oral tradition that was resolutely vigilant, the Rigveda records the dawning of Hinduism in India. The Dravidian languages of India were supplanted in the northern and western regions. By 400 BCE, stratification and exclusion by caste had emerged within Hinduism, and Buddhism and Jainism had arisen, proclaiming social orders unlinked to heredity. Early political consolidations gave rise to the loose-knit Maurya and Gupta Empires based in the Ganges Basin. Their collective era was suffused with wide-ranging creativity, but also marked by the declining status of women, and the incorporation of untouchability into an organised system of belief. In South India, the Middle kingdoms exported Dravidian-languages scripts and religious cultures to the kingdoms of Southeast Asia.

Indus Valley civilization of the Bronze Age, the most extensive of the civilizations of Afro-Eurasia, and the ancient Gandhara civilization. 

The regions that comprise the modern state of India were the realm of multiple empires and dynasties, including the Achaemenid, the Maurya, the Kushan, the Gupta; the Umayyad Caliphate in its southern regions, the Samma, the Hindu Shahis, the  Shah Miris, the Ghaznavids, the Delhi Sultanate, the Mughals, and most recently, the British Raj from 1858 to 1947.

Thats why rich in hertage and culture.

Gateway of India 

Taj Mahal India

National of India

National symbols of India 

Indian -state owned is known as National of India. Some important are given below.

• The national flag of India, colloquially called Tiraṅgā, is a horizontal rectangular tricolour flag, the colours being of India saffron, white and India green; with the Ashoka Chakra, a 24-spoke wheel, in navy blue at its centre.
• National language of India is Hindi.
• The State emblem is an adaptation from the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. In the original, there are four lions, standing back to back, mounted on an abacus with a frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull and a lion separated by intervening wheels over a bell-shaped lotus. Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone, the capital is crowned by the Wheel of the Law (Dharma Chakra).
• National currency of india is Indian Rupees.
• National motive of India "Satyameva Jayate" Sanskrit: "सत्यमेव जयते "("Truth Alone Triumphs")
• National independence day of india 15 Agust 1947.
• National Republic day of india is the day when India marks and celebrates the date on which the Constitution of India came into effect on 26 January 1950.
• National hero of India is Ghandi.
• Gandhi Jayanti is an event celebrated in India to mark the birthday of Mahatma Gandhi. It is celebrated annually on 2 October.
• National calendar of India is Saka calendar.
• National Anthem Jana Gana Mana.
• National song Vande Mataram.
• Oath of Allegiance national Pledge.

• The Indian honours system is the system of awards given to individuals for a variety of services to the Republic of India. The categories of awards are as follows:

Indian civil awards
Bharat Ratna- 1st degree of honour
Padma Vibhushan- 2nd degree of honour
Padma Bhushan- 3rd degree of honour
Padma Shri- 4th degree of honour

• Indian Military awards (Gallantry Awards) are divided below in different categories.

Wartime gallantry awards
Established on 26 January 1950 with retrospective effect from 15 August 1947.
Param Vir Chakra
Mahavir Chakra

Vir Chakra 

Peacetime gallantry awards

Ashoka Chakra

Kirti Chakra
Shaurya Chakra

These awards were instituted on 4 January 1952. These awards were renamed on 27 January 1967 as Ashoka Chakra, Kirti Chakra and Shaurya Chakra from Ashoka Chakra (Class I), Ashoka Chakra (Class II) and Ashoka Chakra (Class III) respectively.

Wartime/peacetime service awards

Sena Medal (Army) Nau Sena Medal (Navy).

Vayu Sena Medal (Air Force)

Wartime distinguished awards Sarvottam Yudh Seva Medal

Uttam Yudh Seva Medal

Yudh Seva Medal

Peacetime distinguished awards Param Vishisht Seva Medal

Ati Vishisht Seva Medal

Vishisht Seva Medal

They were established on January 26, 1960

The first 3 awards in the  main Gallantary awards category that came into existence after independence are- Param Vir Chakra, Maha Vir Chakra, Vir Chakra.These awards are conferred twice a year- on Republic Day and Independence Day.The other 3 gallantry awards were introduced in 1952- Ashok Chakra Class I, Ashok Chakra Class II, Ashok Chakra Class III. Later, they were named as Ashok Chakra, Kirti Chakra and Shaurya Chakra.The gallantry Awards have a certain selection process for the recipients.

• National mausoleum of India is An immense mausoleum of white marble, built in Agra between 1631 and 1648 by order of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his favourite wife, the Taj Mahal is the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage.
• India  don’t have a singular national poet but we do award certain exceptional people as Rashtriya Kavi aka Poet of India. However, the first person that comes to mind is Rabindranath Tagore who wrote the national anthem ( Jana Gana mana )
• Father of atomic bomb scientist of India is Dr. Abdul Salaam.
• National dress of India is Dhoti, and saari is the national dress of India.
• National colure of india is not specified, but mostly orange is use.
• Jama Masjid of Delhi most probably known as national mosque, Jama Masjid also spelled Jāmiʿ Masjid, Jama Masjid of Delhi also called Masjid-i Jahān Numā, mosque in Old Delhi, India.
• National mountain of India is Kamchenjunga height is 8586. meter.
• National River of India is Ganga river.
• National aquatc animal of India is Ganges River Dolphin.
• National sport of India is Hockey.
• National flower of India is Lotus.
• National animal of India is Royal Bengal Tiger.
• National heritage animal Indian Elephant.
• National bird is Indian Peacock (Moore).
• National reptile of India is king Cobra snake.
• National library of India is the National library Kolkata.
• National Fruit of India is Mango.
• National vegetable of India is Pumpkin.
• National tree India Banyan tree.
• National drink of India is Tea (chai) .
• National food of Indian is Khichdi.
• Doordarshan (abbreviated as DD; lit. 'distant vision, television') is an Indian public service broadcaster founded by the Government of India, owned by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting and one of Prasar Bharati's two divisions.
• All india Radio or Akashvani (literary meaning "Voice from the Sky"), also known as All India Radio (AIR), is the national public radio broadcaster of India and is a division of Prasar Bharati. It was established in 1936. It is the sister service of Prasar Bharati's Doordarshan, an Indian television broadcaster.
• Indian National telecommunication is TCIL, a prime engineering and consultancy company, is a wholly owned Government of India Public Sector Enterprise under the administrative control of the Department of Telecommunications (DOT), Ministry of Communications, Government of India. TCIL was set up in 1978 for providing Indian telecom expertise in all fields of telecom, Civil and IT to developing countries around the world. 
• National steel mill of india is indian steel mill works under the ministry of steel india.
• Indian National Railway is known as Indian Railways (IR) is a statutory body under the ownership of the Ministry of Railways, Government of India that operates India's national railway system. It manages the fourth largest national railway system in the world by size, with a total route length of 68,043 km (42,280 mi), running track length of 102,831 km (63,896 mi) and track length of 128,305 km (79,725 mi) as of 31 March 2022, and 58,812 km (36,544 mi) of all the gauge routes are electrified with 25 kV 50 Hz AC electric traction as of 1 April 2023.
• Rail Bhawan is the headquarters of the Indian Railways. It is located at Raisina Road, New Delhi, near the Sansad Bhavan (Parliament House).
• Indian Railways (reporting mark) (Urdu: انڈین رلویز) is In Indian, wagons owned by the Indian Railways are marked with codes of two to four letters, these codes normally being the initials of the railway divisions concerned along with the Hindi abbreviation; for example, trains of the Western Railway zone are marked "WR" and "प रे"; those of the Central Railway zone are marked "CR" and "मध्य", etc. The codes are agreed between the railways and registered with the Ministry of Railways, Government of India.
• National Air line of India is Air India (AI) is the flag carrier airline of India, headquartered at New Delhi.
• India Post is a government-operated postal system in India, and is the trade name of the Department of Post under the Ministry of Communications. Generally known as the Post Office, it is the most widely distributed postal system in the world. Warren Hastings had taken initiative under East India Company to start the Postal Service in the country in 1766. It was initially established under the name "Company Mail". It was later modified into a service under the Crown in 1854 by Lord Dalhousie. Dalhousie introduced uniform postage rates (universal service) and helped to pass the India Post Office Act 1854 which significantly improved upon 1837 Post Office act which had introduced regular post offices in India. It created the position Director General of Post for the whole country.

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007 secret Agent , James Bond

Official website www.007.com

Inspiration for the character. Fleming based his creation on a number of individuals which he came across during his time in the Naval Intelligence Division during the Second World War, admitting that Bond "was a compound of all the secret agents and commando types I met during the war".

What does 007 stand for?

Agents in the British Secret Service with codifiers beginning in "00" are the agents with a "license to kill" in any means necessary. The "7" is simply his MI6 identification number.

Orgins of the name

There are two theories about orgin of the name.

First theory 

Fleming took the name for his character from that of the American ornithologist James Bond, a Caribbean bird expert and author of the definitive field guide Birds of the West Indies; Fleming, a keen birdwatcher himself, had a copy of Bond's guide and he later explained to the ornithologist's wife that "It struck me that this brief, unromantic, Anglo-Saxon and yet very masculine name was just what I needed, and so a second James Bond was born".

Second theory 

In 2018, it was reported that the name could have emerged from a former member of the Special Operations Executive, James Charles Bond, who had, according to released military records, served under Fleming.

Bond's code number—007—was assigned by Fleming in reference to one of British naval intelligence's key achievements of First World War: the breaking of the German diplomatic code. One of the German documents cracked and read by the British was the Zimmermann Telegram, which was coded 0075, and which was one of the factors that led to the US entering the war.

Orgin of the logo

Bondiana is one of the greatest film series of modern times, making the 007 logos well-known to fans of action-packed movies. It’s as precise as a sharp shot, embedding itself into one’s memory like a steel bullet, striking down to the cerebellum. The emblem is easily absorbed by the subconscious because it contains iconic elements of the cinematic masterpiece. It is both a key to the mystery and an instrument of vengeance.

007 is the code name for James Bond, a secret agent of British intelligence, who is a character created by Ian Fleming. The author made Bond the main character of his works. However, it was the film company Eon Productions that brought worldwide fame to this character by making films based on cult novels (with the exception of two movies). Over time, the role of 007 has been played by many outstanding contemporary actors. The number 007 itself is not a random set of digits but a decoded cipher of the German diplomatic code – one of the legendary achievements of British naval intelligence.

Although everything began long before 1961, when Harry Saltzman and Albert Broccoli bought the film rights to Fleming’s James Bond books, that period was decisive. It was then that the partnership of the two producers led to the creation of the film company Eon Productions, which focused on filming the Bondiana. After the completion of their work, the iconic logo – a black pistol – appeared on screens. It was designed by Joe Caroff from United Artists.

The long evolution of the 007 emblems is associated with changes in the design of movie posters. Various artists were hired for the job, each with their own style, so the pistol and the agent’s code number were adapted to them, not the other way around. In the end, a chain of variations of the same symbol emerged, but they didn’t make it onto the official list.

Particular attention in the iconic logo is paid to the inner corners, the thickness ratio of the digits and the pistol grip, the dynamics, italics, and other small details. In reality, this symbol looked different on posters and advertisements, as it was harmoniously integrated into the text. That is, there are many more drawn versions where the theme of the film, the country of distribution, and the year of release are taken into account.

Historical inspiration

The central figure in Ian Fleming's work is the fictional character of James Bond, an intelligence officer in the "Secret Service". Bond is also known by his code number, 007, and was a Royal Naval Reserve Commander.

During the Second World War, Ian Fleming had mentioned to friends that he wanted to write a spy novel. It was not until 1952, however, shortly before his wedding to his pregnant girlfriend, Ann Charteris, that Fleming began to write his first book, Casino Royale, to distract himself from his forthcoming nuptials. Fleming started writing the novel at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica on 17 February 1952, typing out 2,000 words in the morning, directly from his own experiences and imagination. He finished work on the manuscript in just over a month, completing it on 18 March 1952. Describing the work as his "dreadful oafish opus", Fleming showed it to an ex-girlfriend, Clare Blanchard, who advised him not to publish it at all, but that if he did so, it should be under another name. Despite that advice, Fleming went on to write a total of twelve Bond novels and two short story collections before his death on 12 August 1964. The last two books—The Man with the Golden Gun and Octopussy and The Living Daylights—were published posthumously.

Fleming featured Bond in another 12 novels and additional short-story collections over the next 10 years. In 1962 the 007 novel Dr. No (1958) was adapted for film. Produced by Albert (“Cubby”) Broccoli and Harry Saltzman, it initiated one of the most successful movie franchises in history. After Fleming’s death, other writers continued producing new novels and original film stories in the series.

screen actors of the Bond film series 

Bond was portrayed by several screen actors, including Sean Connery in the 1960s, Roger Moore in the ’70s and ’80s, and Pierce Brosnan in the ’90s, and Bond remained effectively ageless throughout those decades. 

However, as Daniel Craig took up the role with a new adaptation of Casino Royale (2006), the character’s history was formally restarted, establishing him definitively as a post-Cold War hero born in 1968. Beginning in the 1990s films, in response to changing social attitudes, Bond’s chauvinism was softened. The Broccoli family continues to hold the production rights on all Bond movie adaptations.

Among all one of the most famous screen actor was 

Pierce Brosnan, in full Pierce Brendan Brosnan, (born May 16, 1953, County Meath, Ireland), Irish American actor who was perhaps best known for playing James Bond in a series of films  in the ’90s,

Pierce Brosnan

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